In the past, analysts, consultants and many other experts have tried to estimate the cost of new chips using the latest process technology. They concluded that by the 3-nanometer node, only a few companies could afford it, and by the E-level node, no one might be able to afford it. Much has changed in the last few process nodes. More and more startups are succeeding in making advanced node chips that cost far less than those highly quoted numbers. Behind those numbers are some broad changes in chip design and manufacturing. Among them: Many advanced node chips are either highly replicated arrays of multiple cumulative processing elements for AI/ML. These are relatively simple compared to integrating different elements on a single chip, but require characterization of their thermal issues, noise, and various use cases and applications. Advanced packaging techniques, which have become mainstream since the creation of these early estimates, allow chipmakers to bundle together chips
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